A Data-Backed Guide to What is the Raw Material for Non-Woven Fabric: 5 Core Types in 2025

Resumen

The functional versatility of nonwoven fabrics stems directly from the diversity of their constituent raw materials. An examination of these foundational components reveals a landscape dominated by synthetic polymers, supplemented by natural and regenerated fibers. Polypropylene (PP) and polyester (PET) represent the majority of polymers used, prized for their cost-effectiveness, durability, and amenability to high-speed manufacturing processes like spunbond and meltblown. The selection of a specific raw material for non-woven fabric is a calculated decision, balancing performance requirements such as strength, absorbency, and filtration efficiency against economic and environmental considerations. Emerging biopolymers like polylactic acid (PLA) offer a pathway toward sustainability, presenting biodegradable alternatives for single-use applications. Natural fibers, including cotton and wood pulp, contribute softness and absorbency, particularly in hygiene products. The final properties of a nonwoven product are thus predetermined by the intrinsic characteristics of the chosen fiber, making the study of these materials fundamental to understanding the nonwoven industry as a whole.

Principales conclusiones

• Polypropylene (PP) is a dominant, low-cost polymer used for its moisture resistance and chemical stability.
• Polyester (PET) offers superior strength, heat resistance, and durability for demanding applications.
• The raw material for non-woven fabric directly dictates the final product's properties and performance.
• Natural fibers like cotton and wood pulp provide absorbency and softness, ideal for hygiene products.
• Biopolymers such as PLA are gaining traction as sustainable, biodegradable alternatives to traditional synthetics.
• Specialty bicomponent fibers allow for engineered properties not achievable with a single polymer.

Índice

• Understanding the Foundation: What Are Nonwoven Fabrics?
• The Pillars of Production: Synthetic Polymer Fibers
• The Natural Choice: Plant-Based and Animal-Based Fibers
• The Sustainable Frontier: Biopolymers and Regenerated Fibers
• From Fiber to Fabric: How Raw Materials Influence Manufacturing
• Preguntas frecuentes
• Conclusión
• Referencias

Understanding the Foundation: What Are Nonwoven Fabrics?

Before we can have a meaningful discussion about what is the raw material for non-woven fabric, we must first establish a clear understanding of the subject itself. A nonwoven fabric is not woven or knitted, as the name suggests. Think about traditional textiles, like the denim in your jeans or the cotton in a t-shirt. These are made from yarns, which are first spun from fibers and then interlaced in a regular, repeating pattern—the weave or knit. Nonwovens bypass this entire yarn-spinning and interlacing process. Instead, they are engineered structures made directly from separate fibers or from molten plastic extruded into continuous filaments (Albrecht et al., 2005).

Imagine scattering a layer of loose fibers, like cotton balls pulled apart, onto a flat surface. Now, imagine finding a way to bond them together into a single, cohesive sheet. You could press them with heat, entangle them with high-pressure water jets, or apply an adhesive. The result would be a nonwoven fabric. This fundamental difference in construction is the source of both their unique properties and their cost-effectiveness. The production process is often much faster than weaving or knitting, making nonwovens ideal for disposable products and large-scale industrial applications .

Defining the Terms: Fiber, Web, and Bond

To truly grasp the concept, let's break down the terminology. The journey from raw material to finished product involves three core stages: web formation, web consolidation (bonding), and finishing treatments (techniques-ingenieur.fr).

1. The Fiber: This is the basic building block, the raw material itself. Fibers can be short, measured in millimeters or inches (staple fibers), or they can be continuous, unbroken strands (filaments). The choice of fiber is perhaps the most significant decision in the entire process, as its inherent properties—strength, softness, absorbency, chemical resistance—will be carried through to the final fabric.
2. The Web: This is the sheet-like assembly of fibers before they are bonded together. Think of it as a delicate, un-stabilized blanket. There are several ways to form this web. In a 'dry-laid' process, staple fibers are carded (a process similar to combing) and laid down. In an 'air-laid' process, fibers are suspended in the air and then deposited onto a moving screen, creating a very uniform, often fluffy web (Verma et al., 2025). In 'wet-laid' processes, fibers are dispersed in water, similar to papermaking, forming a slurry that is then deposited and drained. Finally, 'polymer-laid' or 'spun-laid' processes, like spunbond and meltblown, extrude molten polymer directly into fine filaments that are immediately laid down to form the web.
3. The Bond: This is the mechanism that gives the web its structural integrity. Without bonding, the web is just a loose collection of fibers. Bonding methods are diverse:
   • Mechanical Bonding: This involves physically entangling the fibers. Needle punching, a process used to create robust fabrics like geotextiles, uses barbed needles to repeatedly punch through the web, forcing the fibers to interlock. Hydroentangling, or spunlacing, uses fine, high-pressure jets of water to achieve a similar entanglement, resulting in soft, drapable fabrics.
   • Thermal Bonding: This method is used when the raw material includes thermoplastic fibers (fibers that melt). The web is passed through heated rollers or ovens, causing the fibers to melt at their contact points and fuse together upon cooling.
   • Chemical Bonding: A chemical binder, like an acrylic latex, is applied to the web through spraying, printing, or saturation. The web is then dried and cured, locking the fibers in place with the adhesive.

The specific combination of fiber, web formation method, and bonding technique determines the final fabric's characteristics. A thermally bonded polypropylene spunbond fabric will be strong and water-resistant, perfect for a surgical gown. A hydroentangled web of cotton and viscose will be soft and absorbent, ideal for a face wipe. The possibilities are nearly endless, which explains why nonwovens are found in everything from teabags to automotive headliners. The central question remains: what is the raw material for non-woven fabric that enables this vast diversity?

A Comparison of Common Nonwoven Raw Materials

To provide a clearer picture, this table compares the most prevalent raw materials used in the nonwoven industry, highlighting the key attributes that guide their selection for different applications.

This table serves as a preliminary guide. The reality of material selection is far more nuanced, often involving blends of these fibers to achieve a precise balance of properties. For instance, a baby wipe might blend PET for strength with viscose for softness and absorbency.

The Pillars of Production: Synthetic Polymer Fibers

When one asks, "what is the raw material for non-woven fabric?", the most frequent and statistically significant answer is synthetic polymers. These materials, derived from petroleum, form the backbone of the modern nonwovens industry. Their widespread use is a testament to their tunable properties, processability, and economic efficiency. The development of synthetic fibers in the mid-20th century was the catalyst that transformed nonwovens from a niche sector into a global industrial powerhouse (techniques-ingenieur.fr). Let's explore the two most important players in this category: polypropylene and polyester.

Polypropylene (PP): The Workhorse of the Industry

Polypropylene is, by a significant margin, the most commonly used polymer in nonwovens. If you have ever used a disposable face mask, a reusable shopping bag, or looked at the fabric wrap around a new building (house wrap), you have likely encountered PP nonwoven fabric. Its dominance is not accidental; it stems from a compelling combination of properties.

Chemically, polypropylene is a simple hydrocarbon polymer. This simple structure makes it relatively inexpensive to produce. It is also a thermoplastic, meaning it can be melted and re-solidified without significant degradation. This property is fundamental to high-speed manufacturing processes like spunbond and meltblown, where polymer pellets are melted, extruded into fine filaments, and then bonded using heat.

One of PP's most defining characteristics is its hydrophobic nature—it repels water. While this might seem like a disadvantage, it is a key feature for many applications. In the top sheet of a diaper or a feminine hygiene product, the PP nonwoven allows liquid to pass through quickly to the absorbent core while remaining dry to the touch against the skin, enhancing comfort. Its chemical inertness is another major advantage. It does not react with most acids or alkalis, making it a stable and reliable choice for medical gowns, filtration media, and geotextile fabrics that will be buried in soil for decades.

However, the very properties that make PP so useful also create its limitations. Its low melting point (around 160-170°C) means it cannot be used in high-temperature applications where a material like polyester would be required. It is also susceptible to degradation from UV radiation unless stabilized with additives, a consideration for outdoor applications like crop covers or geotextiles. From a sustainability perspective, while PP is technically recyclable, the infrastructure for collecting and recycling nonwoven products, especially contaminated medical or hygiene items, is not widely established. The conversation around what is the raw material for non-woven fabric is increasingly tied to these end-of-life considerations.

Polyester (PET): The Champion of Strength and Stability

Polyester, most commonly polyethylene terephthalate (PET), is the second major synthetic polymer in the nonwovens world. You know PET from plastic water bottles; it is the same base material, just processed into a fibrous form. Compared to polypropylene, polyester is the high-performance option.

The primary advantages of PET are its superior strength, dimensional stability, and higher temperature resistance. Its melting point is significantly higher than PP's, typically around 260°C. This makes PET the material of choice for applications that demand resilience and durability under stress. In the automotive industry, PET nonwovens are used for headliners, trunk liners, and insulation components that must withstand the temperature fluctuations inside a vehicle. In construction, robust needle-punched PET fabrics serve as roofing substrates and high-strength geotextiles used for soil stabilization and erosion control. A high-performance needle punch nonwoven made from PET can provide exceptional tensile strength and puncture resistance, making it indispensable for civil engineering projects.

PET also exhibits excellent resistance to abrasion and stretching. This dimensional stability is why it's often used in filtration media, where the fabric must maintain its precise pore structure under pressure to function effectively. While PET is also hydrophobic, its surface can be treated to become more hydrophilic (water-attracting) if absorbency is needed.

From an economic standpoint, PET is generally more expensive than PP. Its higher melting point also means it requires more energy to process. On the sustainability front, PET has a major advantage: it is widely recycled. In fact, a significant portion of the PET staple fiber used in nonwovens is produced from recycled post-consumer plastic bottles (rPET). This creates a valuable circular economy pathway, turning waste into durable goods. For any manufacturer or consumer concerned with environmental impact, the choice of rPET as the raw material for a non-woven fabric is a powerful statement.

A Comparative Look at Manufacturing Processes

The choice of raw material is intrinsically linked to the manufacturing process. This table illustrates how different web formation and bonding methods are suited to various fibers.

Understanding this synergy between material and method is key. You would not try to make a soft baby wipe using a needle punch process, nor would you typically use delicate cotton fibers in a high-speed spunbond line designed for polymers. The entire system, from raw material input to finished roll good, is an integrated engineering choice.

The Natural Choice: Plant-Based and Animal-Based Fibers

While synthetic polymers dominate the market in terms of volume, the narrative of what is the raw material for non-woven fabric would be incomplete without a thorough examination of natural fibers. These materials, sourced from plants and animals, were the original ingredients for nonwovens and continue to hold a place in the market due to their unique properties, particularly softness, absorbency, and perceived consumer preference for "natural" products. Their role is especially prominent in markets like personal care, hygiene, and medical applications where direct skin contact is a primary consideration.

Wood Pulp: The Absorbency Powerhouse

Wood pulp, specifically fluff pulp, is a critically important raw material, though it often works behind the scenes. It is rarely the sole component of a nonwoven fabric but is a key ingredient in highly absorbent products. Fluff pulp is produced from softwood trees like pine through a process that separates the cellulose fibers. These fibers are short, naturally absorbent, and relatively inexpensive.

The primary application for fluff pulp is in airlaid nonwovens. In the airlaid process, the pulp fibers are separated and carried by an air stream onto a moving belt, forming a thick, fluffy web (Verma et al., 2025). This web can then be bonded, often thermally by blending it with a small percentage of bicomponent fibers that act as a meltable glue. Sometimes, superabsorbent polymers (SAP) are mixed in to dramatically increase the fluid-holding capacity.

The resulting airlaid fabric is soft, bulky, and exceptionally absorbent. You find this material in the absorbent core of baby diapers, feminine hygiene pads, and adult incontinence products. It is also used for absorbent food pads (like the one under a package of fresh meat) and specialty industrial wipes. The strength of airlaid pulp is not high, so it is often layered with stronger spunbond nonwovens for integrity. The synergy is perfect: the spunbond layers provide strength and fluid management, while the airlaid pulp core provides the bulk absorbent capacity.

Cotton: The Standard for Softness and Purity

Cotton is perhaps the most familiar natural fiber to consumers. Its reputation for softness, breathability, and being gentle on the skin makes it a premium raw material for certain nonwoven applications. Unlike the long fibers used for spinning into yarn for apparel, the nonwovens industry often uses shorter cotton fibers, including comber noils (a byproduct of the spinning industry), making it a resourceful use of material that might otherwise be considered waste.

The preferred manufacturing method for cotton nonwovens is hydroentanglement, or spunlacing. In this process, the carded web of cotton fibers is subjected to intense water jets that entangle the fibers purely through mechanical force. No chemicals or heat binders are used. The result is a 100% cotton nonwoven fabric that is exceptionally soft, strong for its weight, and highly absorbent.

These properties make spunlaced cotton the gold standard for premium personal care wipes, including baby wipes, facial cleansing cloths, and makeup removal pads. Its lint-free nature also makes it suitable for medical applications like wound care pads and sponges. Consumers often show a strong preference for cotton in these applications due to its natural origin and biodegradability. However, cotton is more expensive than wood pulp and synthetic fibers. Its price can also be volatile, subject to crop yields and agricultural market fluctuations. This economic factor often limits its use to higher-end products where consumers are willing to pay a premium for its perceived benefits. When considering what is the raw material for non-woven fabric, cotton represents a choice for quality and natural appeal over pure cost efficiency.

The Sustainable Frontier: Biopolymers and Regenerated Fibers

The global conversation around sustainability has profoundly impacted the materials industry, and nonwovens are no exception. There is a growing demand for materials that reduce reliance on fossil fuels and offer more responsible end-of-life options. This has spurred innovation in two key areas: biopolymers, which are derived from renewable resources, and regenerated fibers, which originate from natural sources but require chemical processing. These materials are redefining the possibilities for what is the raw material for non-woven fabric.

Polylactic Acid (PLA): The Leading Biopolymer

Polylactic acid (PLA) has emerged as the most commercially significant biopolymer for nonwovens. Unlike PP and PET, which are derived from petroleum, PLA is typically made from the fermented starch of renewable plant resources like corn, sugarcane, or cassava. This plant-based origin is its primary appeal.

The process begins by extracting starch from the plant matter, converting it into dextrose (a sugar), and then fermenting the dextrose to produce lactic acid. The lactic acid molecules are then chemically linked together to form the polylactic acid polymer. These PLA pellets can then be used in conventional thermoplastic processing equipment, including spunbond and meltblown lines, making it a "drop-in" replacement for traditional polymers in many cases.

PLA nonwovens exhibit properties that make them suitable for a range of applications. They have a silk-like feel and good drapability, along with natural UV resistance. They are often used for disposable food service items, teabags, agricultural textiles (like mulch films that can be tilled into the soil after use), and certain hygiene products.

The most celebrated feature of PLA is its biodegradability. Under the specific conditions of an industrial composting facility (high temperature, humidity, and microbial activity), PLA will break down into water, carbon dioxide, and organic biomass. This offers a compelling end-of-life solution for single-use products that are difficult to recycle, preventing them from accumulating in landfills.

However, PLA is not without its challenges. It is currently more expensive than PP and PET. Its heat resistance is also lower, limiting its use in applications requiring high-temperature sterilization. Furthermore, its biodegradability is a double-edged sword. It will not readily biodegrade in a typical landfill, a backyard compost pile, or the open environment. It requires the specific conditions of industrial composting, and the infrastructure for collecting and directing these products to such facilities is still developing. So, while PLA represents a significant step forward, realizing its full sustainable potential requires a systemic approach to waste management.

Viscose/Rayon: The Regenerated Cellulose Fiber

Viscose, also known as rayon, occupies an interesting middle ground. It is not a purely natural fiber like cotton, nor is it a synthetic polymer like polyester. It is a regenerated cellulosic fiber. The process starts with a natural source of cellulose, usually wood pulp or bamboo. This pulp is treated with chemicals to dissolve the cellulose, creating a thick, viscous solution (hence the name "viscose"). This solution is then forced through a spinneret into a chemical bath, where it re-solidifies into fine, continuous filaments of pure cellulose.

The resulting fiber has the same chemical base as cotton (cellulose) but with a different physical structure. Viscose fibers are exceptionally uniform, have a silk-like luster and feel, and are even more absorbent than cotton. This combination of softness and high absorbency makes viscose a highly desirable raw material for nonwovens, particularly in the personal care and hygiene sectors.

Spunlaced nonwovens made from 100% viscose or blends of viscose and polyester are extremely common in products like disposable wipes, facial sheet masks, and medical swabs. The fiber’s excellent fluid-handling properties and soft touch are ideal for these skin-contact applications. Like cotton and wood pulp, viscose is biodegradable, which is a significant advantage for disposable items.

The environmental profile of viscose production is complex. While it comes from a renewable resource (trees), the traditional viscose process uses harsh chemicals like carbon disulfide, which can be harmful if not managed in a closed-loop system. Modern manufacturers have invested heavily in cleaner production technologies to capture and reuse these chemicals, significantly improving the environmental footprint. When sourcing this raw material for non-woven fabric, it is important for a proveedor de material no tejido to work with producers who adhere to these high environmental standards.

From Fiber to Fabric: How Raw Materials Influence Manufacturing

The journey from a bale of fiber or a silo of polymer pellets to a finished roll of fabric is a complex dance between material science and mechanical engineering. The choice of what is the raw material for non-woven fabric is not made in isolation; it dictates which manufacturing technologies can be used and what finishing treatments will be effective. A deep appreciation of this relationship is essential for creating high-performance products tailored to specific needs.

The Influence on Web Formation

The very first step, forming the initial web of fibers, is entirely dependent on the physical form of the raw material.

• Staple Fibers (Natural Fibers, Cut PET/PP): Short fibers like cotton, viscose, or polyester staple must be processed through dry-laid or wet-laid systems. In a dry-laid line, the bales of fiber are opened, blended, and then fed into a carding machine. The carder uses fine wire-covered rollers to separate and align the fibers into a thin, uniform web. The quality of the final fabric depends heavily on how well the carding process can handle the specific fiber type—its length, crimp, and finish. Air-laid processes, which use air to transport fibers, are particularly well-suited for short, bulky fibers like wood pulp.
• Polymer Pellets (PP, PET, PLA): Thermoplastic polymers that arrive as pellets are destined for polymer-laid (or spun-laid) processes. In a spunbond system, the pellets are melted in an extruder, forced through a spinneret to create continuous filaments, and then stretched and cooled by air before being deposited onto a moving belt. In a meltblown system, a similar extrusion process is used, but the filaments are immediately blasted with high-velocity hot air, which attenuates them into extremely fine microfibers. These processes are incredibly fast and efficient but are limited to thermoplastic polymers. You cannot feed cotton into a spunbond line.

The Interplay with Bonding Techniques

Once the web is formed, it must be bonded. Again, the raw material dictates the available options.

• Mechanical Bonding (Needle Punching & Spunlacing): These methods work by physically entangling fibers, so they can be used with almost any fiber type, synthetic or natural. Needle punching is particularly effective for creating thick, dense fabrics from strong staple fibers like polyester. This is the core technology behind durable geotextiles and industrial felts. Spunlacing, with its use of water jets, is gentler and works wonderfully with delicate, absorbent fibers like cotton and viscose to create soft, cloth-like fabrics.
• Thermal Bonding: This is the most efficient bonding method, but it is only viable for thermoplastic fibers (PP, PET, PLA) or blends containing them. The web is passed between heated calendar rolls, which can be smooth to create a stiff, flat sheet or embossed with a pattern to create a softer, more flexible fabric with specific bond points. Bicomponent fibers, which have a core of a high-melt-point polymer and a sheath of a low-melt-point polymer, are often blended in to act as a "glue" that activates at a lower temperature, bonding the other fibers together without damaging them. This is a common technique in airlaid products.
• Chemical Bonding: This method uses a liquid adhesive and is also quite versatile. It can be used with a wide range of fiber types. The binder is applied and then cured with heat. However, the presence of a chemical binder can alter the hand-feel of the fabric, making it stiffer, and may not be desirable for certain applications like food contact or sensitive skin products. The trend in many sectors, especially hygiene, has been to move away from chemical bonding toward thermal or mechanical methods.

Understanding how nonwoven fabric is made is to understand this synergy. An engineer designing a product starts with the desired properties—strength, softness, absorbency—and works backward to select the ideal combination of raw material and processing technology to achieve that outcome efficiently and economically.

Preguntas frecuentes

1. What is the most common raw material for non-woven fabric? Polypropylene (PP) is by far the most common raw material. Its low cost, water resistance, chemical inertness, and ease of processing through high-speed methods like spunbond and meltblown make it the workhorse polymer for a vast range of applications, especially in hygiene, medical, and industrial sectors.

2. Are non-woven fabrics made from natural materials? Yes, while synthetic polymers are dominant, natural materials play a significant role. Wood pulp is essential for its absorbency in products like diapers and food pads. Cotton is used for its premium softness and natural appeal in high-quality wipes and medical pads. These fibers are often processed using methods like air-laying and hydroentangling.

3. Is polyester (PET) a good raw material for geotextiles? Polyester (PET) is an excellent raw material for high-performance geotextiles. Its superior tensile strength, durability, and resistance to high temperatures and abrasion make it ideal for demanding civil engineering applications like soil stabilization, reinforcement, and long-term filtration. Needle-punched PET geotextiles are particularly valued for their robustness.

4. What are the sustainable or "green" options for non-woven raw materials? The main sustainable options include biopolymers like Polylactic Acid (PLA), which is derived from renewable resources (like corn starch) and is commercially compostable. Other key options are natural fibers like cotton and wood pulp, which are renewable and biodegradable, and regenerated fibers like viscose. Using recycled polyester (rPET) from plastic bottles is also a major strategy for improving sustainability.

5. How does the raw material affect the cost of the final fabric? The raw material is a primary driver of cost. Polypropylene is generally the least expensive, which contributes to its widespread use. Wood pulp is also cost-effective. Polyester (PET) is moderately priced, while specialty materials like cotton, viscose, and biopolymers like PLA are typically more expensive. The price of the raw material directly impacts the final cost of the nonwoven fabric.

6. Can different raw materials be mixed together? Absolutely. Blending different fibers is a very common practice used to create fabrics with optimized, hybrid properties. For example, a wipe might blend PET for strength with viscose for softness and absorbency. An airlaid absorbent core might blend wood pulp for absorbency with bicomponent fibers that act as a thermal binder to hold the structure together.

7. What is the difference between a staple fiber and a filament? A staple fiber is a short, discrete length of fiber, typically measured in millimeters or inches. Natural fibers like cotton and wood pulp are always staple fibers. Synthetic polymers can also be cut into staple form. A filament is a continuous, unbroken strand of fiber that can be miles long. Spunbond and meltblown processes produce fabrics directly from filaments.

Conclusión

The inquiry into "what is the raw material for non-woven fabric" reveals not a single answer but a complex and dynamic ecosystem of materials science. The choice is a deliberate act of engineering, a careful balancing of function, cost, and consequence. The field is largely built upon the foundation of synthetic polymers, with polypropylene and polyester serving as the versatile pillars that support a vast array of everyday and industrial products. Their predictable properties and compatibility with high-speed manufacturing have enabled the growth of nonwovens into the ubiquitous materials they are today.

Simultaneously, the enduring value of natural fibers like wood pulp and cotton persists, prized for their inherent qualities of absorbency and softness that synthetics often struggle to replicate. They anchor the nonwoven presence in markets where human comfort and natural origin are paramount. Looking forward, the most compelling developments are occurring at the sustainable frontier. Biopolymers like PLA and regenerated fibers like viscose are not merely alternatives; they represent a fundamental rethinking of the material life cycle. They challenge the industry to innovate beyond performance and price, incorporating renewability and end-of-life responsibility into the core of product design. The future of nonwovens will be shaped by the continued interplay of these material families, driving the creation of smarter, more efficient, and more sustainable fabrics.

Referencias

Albrecht, W., Fuchs, H., & Kittelmann, W. (Eds.). (2005). Nonwoven fabrics: Raw materials, manufacture, applications, characteristics, testing processes. Wiley-VCH. +Fabrics%3A+Raw+Materials%2C+Manufacture%2C+Applications%2C+Characteristics%2C+Testing+Processes-p-9783527605316

EDANA. (2025). How are nonwovens made? EDANA, the voice of nonwovens.

EDANA. (2025). What are nonwovens? EDANA, the voice of nonwovens.

Payen, J. (2013). Non-woven materials. Techniques de l'Ingénieur. https://www.techniques-ingenieur.fr/en/resources/article/ti588/non-woven-materials-n4601/v1

Russell, S. J. (Ed.). (2022). Handbook of nonwovens (2nd ed.). Elsevier. https://shop.elsevier.com/books/handbook-of-nonwovens/russell/978-0-12-818912-2

Venkataraman, D., Shabani, E., & Park, J. H. (2023). Advancement of nonwoven fabrics in personal protective equipment. Materials, 16(11), 3964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16113964

Verma, R., Rukhaya, S., & Divya. (2025). Advancements in air-laid nonwoven technology: From production to sustainable innovations. International Journal of Scientific Research, 14(5). https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v14i5/SR25522135203.pdf